Top Down Approach To Water Resource Managment

Top Down Approach To Water Resource Managment Ever since the period of Enlightenment, scientists and academics have adopted a top-down approach to managing the environment and its associated resources. The downfall of this persistent ideology is that it solely values or prioritizes professional expert scientific knowledge as a basis for formulating environmental policies and guiding decisions concerning the environment (Smith et al, 2008). The consequences of prioritizing expert knowledge was that the local knowledge and experiences of the surroundings of people at the grass roots level, were not taken into consideration during decision making and was normally regarded as irrelevant (Smith et al, 2008). In the context of water resource management, this approach meant that the policies, plans and programs formulated were technical and exclusively scientific in nature, lacking the dynamics of the social realm and use of social theory (Smith et al, 2008). The technical nature of policies formulated proved to be locally unsustainable and unacceptable because water resource management is an area that deals with a resource that integrates basic human rights and is central to all life (Smith et al, 2008).Some examples of the consequences of this non-participatory approach to water resource management is the construction of large dams for water supply and irrigation which results in the displacement of thousands of intended beneficiaries or how some government have even intentionally used the water policies formulated under this approach, to harm the disenfranchised (Jansky et al, 2005) Along with being purely technical in nature and non-participatory, conventional water resource management approaches focused primarily on the supply of water resources particularly for development and other economically inclined purposes. 2.2 Supply-driven approach It has been recognized that the evolution of water resource management is greatly interconnected with the growth of the worlds population (Al Radif, 1999). Until the end of the 19th century, water resource management was primarily focused on the supply of water to users for agricultural, domestic and industrial uses which proved to be successful throughout the 19th century due to the low population growth during this period. This approach to water resource management known as the supply-driven approach proved successful because the available water resources during this time period were adequate to meet the needs of the population (Al Radif, 1999). As shown in the Figure 1 above, when the worlds population was approximately 2 billion in the 19th century the fresh water ecosystems basically functioned undisturbed as a user, provider of goods and services and a regulator of both water quality and quantity which assumed a sustainable approach was being implemented however, when the population grew to 3 billion over 60 years, the approach was quickly undermined (Al Radif, 1999). This was mainly due to the governments focus on the supply of water resources by diverting water resources from the original stores to new store pathways. The approach to water resource management resulted in the deterioration of water quality, stresses on water supplies and the degradation of water resources (Al Radif, 1999). 3. INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 3.1 Definitions, principles and objectives According to the Global Water Partnership (GWP) 2000, Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is viewed simultaneously as a philosophy, process and approach which promotes the coordinated development and management of water and related natural resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP, 2000 as cited by Funke et al, 2007). IWRM is also described as a guiding principle that necessitates the interdisciplinary, participative and strategic approach to managing water resources, stressing the co ordinate interaction between and within both human and natural systems with the aim of achieving sustainable development (Guipponi et al, 2000). Since there is no unambiguous and universally accepted definition the examination of the Dublin principles which form the core of IWRM, allows a clearer understanding of the key issues that define IWRM (Funke et al, 2007). The Dublin principles state that: The worlds fresh water is finite and a vulnerable water resource vital for human survival, development and the correct functioning of the environment. Water resource management should be a participative process involving all users planners and policy makers at all levels. Women play a key role in the management of water resources and therefore should be involved in decision making. Water should be recognized as an economic good. IWRM emerged in response to the sector by sector technical conventional water resource management approaches and is more holistic in that it recognizes the various dimensions of water and accepts that water comprises an ecological system formed by a number of interdependent components, where each component influences the other (Matondo, 2002). This recognition results in management directed to joint consideration of aspects for example water supply, water treatment and disposal and water quality (Mitchell, 1944). While water is a system it is also recognized as a component and therefore its interactions with other systems need to be taken into consideration as changes in one system may have consequences in the other, therefore IWRM is a much broader perspective or approach to managing water resources (Matondo, 2002). IWRM does not only take into consideration the complex interconnections of the human and natural systems, it has even broader interpretations as it considers the interrelationships between water and socio-economic development where the main concern is the extent to which the available water supplies is both an opportunity for barrier against economic development and how to manage the resource to ensure sustainable development (Mitchell, 1944). IWRM compared to conventional water management approaches, recognizes and accepts that water resource planning and management can have physical, social and economical impacts and is therefore multi and interdisciplinary involving a wide range of disciplines such as engineering, economics and social science (Matondo, 2002). The aim of formulating multidisciplinary teams in IWRM is communication to view the various perspectives on water resources to ensure the maintenance of ecological functioning and the conservation of water resources (Al Radif, 1999). 3.2 Bottom- up approach By the end of the 1980s the conventional supply-driven management approach proved problematic and incapable of delivering portable water and proper sanitation especially in developing countries. By the mid 1980s early 1990s, the realization and acceptance of the fact that actions at the grass root level is what makes or breaks policies, resulted in the popularization of a more participatory approach to environmental management termed the bottom-up approach (Smith, 2008). In context of water management, conferences held in New Delhi in 1990, Dublin in 1992 and Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 endorsed community participation which was officially adopted universally as a key guiding principle in sustainable water resource management (Smith, 2008).The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Jeneiro specifically proposed that local communities should be involved in all stages of decision making with regard to the management of water resources to ensure that decisions made are locally appropriate, accepted and sustainable (Smith, 2008). The concept of involving communities in all stages of decision making such as policy and plan formulation and project and program implementation, were based on the fact that local people themselves are considered experts of their own local environment and therefore their knowledge should be highly appreciated (Smith, 2008). Unlike the conventional top-down approach, the bottom-up approach encourages local people to work together on environmental issues within their surrounding environment which consequently provides capacity building and empowerment opportunity to communities that are able to define their specific needs, wants and aims in relation to local water access and management (Smith, 2008). IWRM encompasses all aspects of the environment namely economic, environmental and social aspects however, the approach pays little attention to the ecosystems role as a provider of goods and services which resulted in the suggestion of an ecosystem-based approach (Jewitt, 2002). 3.3 Ecosystem-based approach Conventional water resource management approaches were typically a command control type of approach in the sense that it aimed to control the hydrological cycle through the construction of hydrological structures to harvest goods and services and produce predictable outcomes (Jewit, 2002). The reduction of ecosystem variation and functioning, decline in the goods and services provided by ecosystems and resilience of the systems were some of the consequences of adopting this approach (Jewit, 2002). The key components of the ecosystem based approach as shown in figure 3 include capacity building, partnership, policy and planning and the assessment of water resources (Al Radif, 1999).The correct functioning of ecosystems such as headwaters, wetlands and floodplains is vital for human survival since society derives a wide variety of important life sustaining benefits and biodiversity from these systems (Al Radif, 1999). In the context of water resources ecosystems regulate water quality and quantity, habitat resources and provide vital information to society (Al Radif, 1999).Additionally, ecosystems are highly complex systems and the exclusion of vital aspects of the system regarding the environment such as ecological functioning during decision making due to the poor understanding of the systems dynamics results in undermined and unsustainable decisions (Jewit, 2002).This lack of understanding and lack of political willingness to accommodate non-quantitative aspects of ecosystem dynamics results in an incapable management system (Jewit, 2002). An ecosystem-based approach to managing water resources is a realization that management systems need to be flexible anticipatory and adaptive to deal with the complexity of ecosystems. The approach is similar to IWRM however the approach prioritizes ecosystem functioning and its related goods and services (Jewitt, 2002). 4. IWRM IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Despite the universal acceptance of the Dublin principles which form the core of IWRM, The effective implementation of IWRM in each individual country is dependent on the nature and intensity of the water problems that reside in the country (Funke et al, 2007). The argument put forward by the European Union regarding the five fundamental principles of good governance for the effective implementation of IWRM in each country, is not entirely relevant in developing countries as it is in developed countries (Funke et al, 2007). This is mainly because the situations that occur in developing countries differ on many levels compared to those that reside in developed countries (Funke et al, 2007). The openness, participation and transparency of governance in developing countries are hampered by more factors compared to developed countries such as illiteracy and widespread poverty and mistrust of government leaders (Funke et al, 2007). Lack of budgets and human resource capacities in developing countries create a gap between water resource management and the application of new legislations, strategies and institutions in practice and it is therefore clear that with the uniquely characterized problems that reside in developing countries, the solutions to managing water resources in developed countries will prove inapplicable (Funke et al, 2007). IWRM principles and practices therefore need to take into consideration the local conditions which reside in developing countries such as Africa, if the management approach is to prove sustainable in a long run (Funke et al, 2007). 4.1 IWRM in South Africa South Africa is recognized universally as being at the forefront of adopting IWRM as a water resource management regime (Jonker, 2000). The need for IWRM in the countries stems from climatic, historical and political perspectives all of which differ from developed countries and make the successful and effective implementation of IWRM a challenge (Jonker, 2000).From climatic perspective large parts of the country is water limited due to the low average and highly variable rainfall received in the country. The inequitable patterns of both industrial and agricultural development from a historical perspective and the apartheid social engineering and planning legacy from a political perspective, resulted in the unequal access to and use of water resources and more concentrated water demands in particular areas of the country (Jonker, 2000). An additional challenge to IWRM in South Africa aroused when the citizens of the country took part in a national democratization process and now have the growing need to participate in decision making processes at all levels (Jonker, 2000). This has its benefits challenge although the problems come in when decision makers have to decide the extent to which citizens are able to have an influence on decisions made and the challenge of trade offs (Jonker, 2000). The management approach embraces a multitude of stakeholders in South Africa which include environmentalists, government at all levels, NGOs and local organizations such as subsistence farmers, traditional leaders and women groups (Shculze et al, 2004). The political transformation in South Africa the mid nineties was used as an opportunity by the water sector for formulating new water law policies and a new water act in 1998. IWRM formed the basis of this transformation and both the constitution and National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 make fundamental facilitations for the effective and successful implementation in South Africa (Jonker, 2000). 4.2 The Constitution and National Water Act of 1998 Despite the peaceful political transition to democracy in South Africa, in the context of water resource management, the allocation and management of water resources was still regulated by the 1956 Water Act which is primarily based on the riparian system water rights making no provision for the integration, equity or facilitation for transparent and open decision making, ecological sustainability or the reduction of poverty (Dollar et al, 2010). The inclusion of the concept of sustainable development into the South African Constitution due to the initiation of a water reform process in 1995 resulted in a major shift towards IWRM because the Constitution forms the basis of all policies laws and practices for water management ( Dollar et al, 2010). The values entrenched in the Constitution include equity, the right of access to sufficient water and a healthy environment and thus provides the enabling environment for the formulation and implementation of a new democratic water act ( Dollar et al, 2010). It took over three years for the NWA of 1998 to come into law in South Africa and the NWA recognizes that water is a powerful tool for restructuring society (Dollar et al, 2010). The act encompasses values such as human rights, social justice principles and provides policies and legal frameworks required to ensure the equal, efficient and sustainable supply of water resources (Asmal, 1998). Despite the fact that the NWA does not contain the term IWRM, it encompasses the principles and objectives of the water management approach as set out on the White paper policy document of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (Jonker et al, 2000). The act also makes noteworthy provisions and fundamental provisions for the effective implementation of IWRM (Asmal, 1998). Some of the provisions include the recognition by the act that water for basic human needs and proper ecological functioning must be taken as first priority before commercial and other water uses, the change from water rights to water-use rights and makes provision for levies to be charged for all major water users for their consumption (Asmal, 1998). This provision was made to ensure equity and efficiency but was met great resistance from the agricultural sector (Asmal, 1998) mainly because the agricultural sector is highly dependent on water resources for irrigation purposes (Schulze et al, 2004). The NWA also facilitates public participation which is one of the core principles of IWRM and stresses that government should involve local communities and all affected and involved stakeholders during legislation and policy formulation, and take their comments seriously however, even though the their catchment is their responsibility government remains the overseer (Schulze et al,2004).Another important provision of the NWA is the focus on the arrangements and establishment of institutions which resulted in a significant shift to more integrated and co operative approaches to water governance and stakeholder participation to ensure IWRM (Asmal, 1998). The act acknowledges that political boundaries prove inappropriate for water management and watersheds are more relevant. Part of IWRM is to ensure that there is equitable use of shared rivers and development cannot occur in isolation, another highlight of the NWA (Asmal, 1998). These provisions in the NWA of 1998 set the foundation for the implementation of IWRM in South Africa however; despite the top quality of the act implantation fatigue occurs due to capacity constraints and other challenges to the effective implementation of IWRM (Asmal, 1998). 5. CHALLENGES TO INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 5.1 Conceptual shortcomings The views of authors regarding universally accepted definition of IWRM provided by the Global Water partnership 2000 as being a hamper to the effective implementation of IWRM (Sherwill et al,2007). One of the arguments put forward is that the definition is narrow, incomplete and unchallenging and that this conceptual shortcoming tempts the water resource manager continue implementing the conventional water management practices and labeling it as IWRM (funke et al, 2007). Some authors argue that for effective implementation, the definition should include allocation to compensate for the inevitable political processes that reshape IWRM. While other authors argue that poverty should be included into the restricted definition the European Union suggests a complete name change of IWRM to Constructively Engaged IWRM Allocation and management which will emphasize the importance of practically implementing IWRM with prime focus on stakeholder involvement (funke et al, 2007). In the context of South Africa, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) defines IWRM as a management strategy aimed to achieve the sustainable use of water resources by all affected stakeholders at catchment, regional, national and international levels while maintaining the integrity of water resources at catchment levels. (Schulze et al, 2004). Universally, apart from the conceptual shortcomings of IWRM which hamper its effective implementation, IWRM is first and foremost an institutional challenge that demands institutional capacities for integration which is in short supply (Van de Zaag, 2005). 5.2 Institutional challenges The management of resources and formulations of projects and plans have been fragmented, uncoordinated and implemented in a top-down approach however, according to the Global Water Partnership 2000 one of the most fundamental pillars of IWRM is integrated and coordinated institutional frameworks through which policies, strategies and legislations can be implemented (Funke, et al 2007). The integrative capacity of many countries lie at district level were various government departments such as health, environmental and education participate in implementing multi sector rural development programs ( Van De Zaag, 2005). South Africa on the other hand overrides existing management structures creating a structure alongside but separate from existing structures that are defined by hydrological boundaries and is regarded a waste of institutional resources (Van de Zaag, 2005). The South African NWA of 1998 mandates the establishment of water management institutions resulting in the neglecting of focus on the practical implementation of IWRM (Van de Zaag, 2005). Institutional fragmentation still persists in South Africa because the countries environmental, water and land-use legislations and administrations are administered by separate lines of functions in government ministries (Van de Zaag, 2005). 5.3 Governance and politics Effective implementation of IWRM is regarded as a product of good governance as it enables tradeoffs to be made between competing users for a resource with the aim of mitigating any conflict, enhancing equity, ensuring sustainability and holding officials liable for their actions (Funke et al, 2007). Participative, open and transparent governance plays an important part in forming the framework required for the successful implementation of IWRM. The issue however is that inefficient capacity and inefficient government processes and structures reside in countries with relatively ground democracies such as South Africa (Funke et al, 2007). Governance in developing countries lack the economic technical and human resources to implement IWRM and the challenge of politics and tradeoffs when making decisions regarding the allocation of water resources are unavoidable as they form part of the problem and solution (Funke et al, 2007). With reference to South Africa, after the modification of the countries water law to address post inequities, makes it more challenging for the successful implementation of IWRM in the country (Funke et al, 2007). 5.4 Public Participation Although public participation has been highly valued and recognized as being a fundamental component for the effective implementation of IWRM, there are inevitable problems and complexities that are associated with the process that needs to be taken into consideration (Smith, 2008). The four main problems associated with the process and highlighted by Smith 2008 is tokenism in terms of the degree to which local communities are involved in decision making, myths of regarding the community as a homogeneous coherent and cohesive body, local-level capacity constraints and critical lack of facilitator knowledge (Smith, 2008). The problem of tokenism is that communities are only considered important for the provision of local knowledge regarding their environment and are not involved in important and effectual positions in the different levels of decision making processes (Smith, 2008). This may be due to the unwillingness of government to devolve their power to local level communities. This results in plans and legislations that are locally inappropriate (Smith, 2008). With regard to the community myth, most communities are simplified as cohesive homogenous and harmonious entities with similar interests and goals instead of recognizing it as the complex heterogeneous organizations that they are (Smith, 2008). This fact must be included in management planning. This will then ensure locally appropriate outcomes. Other most problematic elements are the financial capacity constraints mainly experienced by bottom-up projects. Even though the community may be committed towards initiating a project, the essential element is economic material which local communities often lack (Smith, 2008). Therefore where there is community engagement the economic and social capacities needs to be considered (Smith, 2008). The final problematic element is the lack of knowledge regarding the process of public participation held by facilitators resulting in an influential process being facilitated by people without the necessary skills and capacities to initiate community participation initiatives (Smith, 2008). Despite the problems associated with public participation it is essential that the process be appreciated as an empowering, enlightening and sustainable approach to water resource management (Smith, 2008).

Walmart Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Walmart History: Beginning to Today Wal-Mart is a general merchandise discount retailer, which was incorporated in 1962. Wal-Mart’s history is based on one man, Sam Walton, who changed the course of retailing forever. Sam Walton first entered retailing when he was a management trainee at J.C. Penny Co. in 1940 in Des Moines, Iowa. After serving in the Army in World War II, Walton acquired a Ben Franklin variety store franchise with his brother James Walton in Newport Arkansas, until they lost the lease to the store in 1950. By 1962, when the first Wal-Mart Discount City was opened in Rogers Arkansas, both Walton’s were operating fifteen stores under the â€Å"Walton 5 & 10† name, and were the largest Ben Franklin franchisee in the country. Limited pricing, low gross margins, and high inventory turnover characterized these stores. Walton phased out the stores in 1976 in order to focus on the emerging Wal-Mart stores. In 1978, the first distribution center was built, followed by the first Wal-Ma rt Supercenter in 1983 and a Sam’s Club in 1988. Important to Walton, and ultimately Wal-Mart, are certain philosophies that were amounted over time. Walton held these values tightly, and engrained them in the Wal-Mart cultures. From his experience at J.C. Penny Co. he was impressed with the philosophies they used (e.g. â€Å"The Penny Idea†) and used them to mold Wal-Mart. This included referring to employees as â€Å"associates†, serving the public to their complete satisfaction, and receiving a fair profit from services rendered. Walton’s theory on what Wal-Mart should be is â€Å"a conveniently located one-stop shopping unit where customers could buy a wide variety of quality merchandise at discount prices.† And as Wal-Mart grew, management sought a firm that was a â€Å"discount department store chain offering a wide variety of general merchandise to the customer.† It was on these values and philosophies that Wal-Mart expanded. Wal-Mart has grown above and beyond the Arkansas store that opened thirty-nine years ago. It serves more than 100 million customers weekly in all of the 50 states, plus Puerto Rico, Canada, China, Mexico, Brazil, Germany, United Kingdom, Argentina, and South Korea. Wal-Mart’s current operating numbers are: Wal-Mart Stores 1,736 SuperCenters 888 SAM’s Clubs 475 Wal-Mart Neighbo... ...mount of inconvenience, Wal-Mart should implement more entrances and exits into different departments, such as the Garden department and the Grocery department, with signage that easily identifies what part of the store the entrances are leading too. Moving from the retail level to business relationships, Wal-Mart has extensive opportunities to expand on its distinctive competency of its distribution system. The company has strategically placed distribution centers all over the US close to its stores. This not only makes for an excellent venue to supply Wal-Marts, but other companies’ stores as well. Wal-Mart Inc. can be a competitive distributor that would service companies not in direct competition with Wal-Mart. A study should be conducted to find out which industry should be targeted for this type of venture. This is a low risk high return venture because Wal-Mart would be using facilities that the company already owns, and expansion of these facilities is already in the making. In addition, Wal-Mart has already been successful in distribution with its offspring grocery store distributor â€Å"McLean†. McLean services not only Wal-Marts, but convenience stores as well. Walmart Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework Walmart History: Beginning to Today Wal-Mart is a general merchandise discount retailer, which was incorporated in 1962. Wal-Mart’s history is based on one man, Sam Walton, who changed the course of retailing forever. Sam Walton first entered retailing when he was a management trainee at J.C. Penny Co. in 1940 in Des Moines, Iowa. After serving in the Army in World War II, Walton acquired a Ben Franklin variety store franchise with his brother James Walton in Newport Arkansas, until they lost the lease to the store in 1950. By 1962, when the first Wal-Mart Discount City was opened in Rogers Arkansas, both Walton’s were operating fifteen stores under the â€Å"Walton 5 & 10† name, and were the largest Ben Franklin franchisee in the country. Limited pricing, low gross margins, and high inventory turnover characterized these stores. Walton phased out the stores in 1976 in order to focus on the emerging Wal-Mart stores. In 1978, the first distribution center was built, followed by the first Wal-Ma rt Supercenter in 1983 and a Sam’s Club in 1988. Important to Walton, and ultimately Wal-Mart, are certain philosophies that were amounted over time. Walton held these values tightly, and engrained them in the Wal-Mart cultures. From his experience at J.C. Penny Co. he was impressed with the philosophies they used (e.g. â€Å"The Penny Idea†) and used them to mold Wal-Mart. This included referring to employees as â€Å"associates†, serving the public to their complete satisfaction, and receiving a fair profit from services rendered. Walton’s theory on what Wal-Mart should be is â€Å"a conveniently located one-stop shopping unit where customers could buy a wide variety of quality merchandise at discount prices.† And as Wal-Mart grew, management sought a firm that was a â€Å"discount department store chain offering a wide variety of general merchandise to the customer.† It was on these values and philosophies that Wal-Mart expanded. Wal-Mart has grown above and beyond the Arkansas store that opened thirty-nine years ago. It serves more than 100 million customers weekly in all of the 50 states, plus Puerto Rico, Canada, China, Mexico, Brazil, Germany, United Kingdom, Argentina, and South Korea. Wal-Mart’s current operating numbers are: Wal-Mart Stores 1,736 SuperCenters 888 SAM’s Clubs 475 Wal-Mart Neighbo... ...mount of inconvenience, Wal-Mart should implement more entrances and exits into different departments, such as the Garden department and the Grocery department, with signage that easily identifies what part of the store the entrances are leading too. Moving from the retail level to business relationships, Wal-Mart has extensive opportunities to expand on its distinctive competency of its distribution system. The company has strategically placed distribution centers all over the US close to its stores. This not only makes for an excellent venue to supply Wal-Marts, but other companies’ stores as well. Wal-Mart Inc. can be a competitive distributor that would service companies not in direct competition with Wal-Mart. A study should be conducted to find out which industry should be targeted for this type of venture. This is a low risk high return venture because Wal-Mart would be using facilities that the company already owns, and expansion of these facilities is already in the making. In addition, Wal-Mart has already been successful in distribution with its offspring grocery store distributor â€Å"McLean†. McLean services not only Wal-Marts, but convenience stores as well.

On Campus or Off Campus Living

On Campus or Off Campus Living If you are a new student and you want to choose between living on campus and living off campus, here some differences between them which may help you in your decision. The first difference is the cost. Normally, off campus housing is more expensive than on campus housing because of the additional charges. When you live off campus, you should pay for your own Internet access, furniture, and kitchen and bath necessities in addition to the rent, so it is a high initial cost.However, on campus housing does not need most of these charges because they are already paid with the rent. The second difference is transportation. If you live on campus, you can easily walk to your classes, libraries, and cafeterias. You do not have to waste your time and money to ride buses or trains or to drive your car to go to the campus. In contrast, you should ride buses or trains or drive your car to go to the campus when you live off campus which means wasting money and time i n addition to the traffic issues if you are living in a crowded area.On campus housing and off campus housing also differ in privacy. On campus housing usually means a shared bedroom, bathroom, and kitchen. It is also means a limited and sometimes not quiet place to study because you share it with others. On the other hand, off campus housing means you own your bedroom, bathroom, and kitchen and also means there is a large enough and quiet enough place to study. The other difference is the social life.Living on campus allows you to make more friends and meet more people than living off campus and also keeps you in touch with any activities that happen on campus, while living off campus probably does not allow you to make more friends or keep in touch with most campus activities. All in all, there are many differences between living on campus and living off campus, so when you want to choose between living on and off campus, classify these differences to advantages and disadvantages depending on your situation. After that, choose which is more advantageous than the other. .

The Contributions Of Human Resources Management Business Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2926 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Many people start there career in Mobilink Pakistan every year and similarly many end the same. It is because staff turnover and internal growth requiring more human resources to manage the organization. Keith (1996) recognises recruitment as the process to contact suitable candidates to fill the vacant position held with in the organization. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Contributions Of Human Resources Management Business Essay" essay for you Create order Mobilink Pakistans selection procedure is quite detailed to make sure that the attributes held by the suitable individual match the same required by the organization. Hence it make sure that right person has been appointed for the right job. Selection and recruitment involves critically evaluate persons specifications, job analysis and job description. Then job is advertised to attract the most suitable candidates. The candidates are tested against various benchmarking criteria, interviewed and finally the most appropriate person is offered the position. Mobilink Pakistan uses internal and external both methods for recruitment. Internally recruitment is done by job bidding, promotion and extending the existing employees contracts. To attract the most suitable candidates as discussed above, Mobilink Pakistan adopts a number of following external recruitment procedures; Job Referrals Recruitment through agencies Job seminars at prestigious universities Overseas rec ruitment in collaboration with business partners EMPLOYEE REWARD SYSTEM Employee reward system has always been a very sensitive issue for the Human resources department of any organization. In Mobilink Pakistan a number of ways are adopted to ascertain the justifiable levels of perquisites and salaries. During the process of job appraisal it is made sure that judgments are unbiased and without discrimination. Basic type of reward system currently in place at Mobilink Pakistan has either time or output as the variable. There are changes in remuneration over time. Different reward systems are used for different levels of employment. However recently the main consideration has been given to pay for performances. Dianna (2005) recognises that different rewards system can be used within the same organization that may be due to change in sectors or regions. However recently equal pay right is a major issue in the organizations. Similarly in the future with the growth of global conglomerates, designing equitable reward system for the employees belongs t o different countries will be another major issue. The human resources department of Mobilink Pakistan has been charged with all these responsibilities. EMPLOYEE RELATIONS; For the human resources management of the Mobilink, employees relationship have always been of key importance. Historically this element has been as changeable as ever. There is a deep correlation between employees relations and other enterprise resources. With in the Mobilink Pakistan employer-employee relationship contributes towards satisfactory productivity and to motivate the workforce. It also avoids the individuals problems that may effect the smooth operations of the company. Professional training is provided to the departmental heads on how to improve standards of performance and correct employee misconduct. Employees are provides recurring information to elaborate managements goals and expectations. Besides that personal issues are also addressed that may effect employer-employee relationship. Employees are provided whistle blowing protections and their grievances are considered by the appropriate concerns. P 1.2: Justify how the objectives of these were achieved by effective management of human resource. The Mobilink Pakistan management realised that effective human resources management has key importance to influence, promote agreed goals and sharing responsibility between employees and the organization. The logic behind is that such type of positive attitude would lead to enhance employees commitment that will ultimately enhance productivity with in the organization. Following are the key elements of Mobilinks human resources strategy; Achieving the whole task by team work Mutually agreeing objectives Flatten the organizational structure by reducing supervision and trusting those charged with concerned responsibilities. Rewards to the efficient teams and groups Up to dated training of the workforce Effective employee relations through joint problem solving Ricky (2009) believes that this type of structure can be applied in every type of organizational structure to enhance standards of performance. Standards of performance can be improved in a number of fol lowing ways; To benefit with the skills and knowledge of the employees the recruitment and selection process can be improved. Training and development can enhance the quality of the employees contribution. An effective reward system is very essential to encourage the employees to be productive. Employees will be motivated once they believe that they will be treated fairly by the management. The mutually agreed line to action to perform any task has an impact on effectiveness. P 1.3: Refer to at least two HRM models as Contingency Model, Harvard Model, Ten C Model, seven step model, Business process model etc.Please choose the model which is suitable to the Organization you have chosen for the purpose. CONTINGENCY MODEL: Julie (1994) recognises that contingency model of human resources management describes the correlation between human resources and strategic needs of the business. Contingency approach describes two sorts of relationships that consider different causes that results predictable influence. Contingency model of human resource model indicates that in order to speed up the implementation of strategic change, there should be coherence across all human resources policies and practices. Thomas (1992) adds that this stands true only for the corporate culture in the United States of America where as British organizations exhibit different behaviour. For the reason this model has been widely criticised. ARGUMENTS FOR CONTINGENCY MODEL AND MOBILINK; To match different situations management skills and styles must be selected. People should change with the change in business needs. Appropriate pay and appraisal system can challenge behaviours. In the different parts of the orga nization contingency model helps to use various approaches for employee relations. Contingency approach decreases the importance of culture and non economic issues. ARGUMENTS AGAINST CONTINGENCY MODEL AND MOBILINK; It promotes the rigidity of stereotype managers. It expects impractical accuracy in selection systems. Contingency model impractical requirements for flexibility. To enhance management behaviours training and rewards can be used. Corporate differentiation never based on situational contingencies. HARVARD MODEL OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT This model recognises softer issues of strategic management. Yeung (1994) add that Harvard model stresses the human aspect of the human resource management. All managerial decisions that may affect the organization and employees are important before developing human resources strategy. The model address that it is essential that management have a view how they want the employees to contribute for organizational developments to solve the problems associated with personal management. It is the responsibilities of the general management to ensure the meaningful difference between management activities and coordinated activities. Harvard model recognises that actual role of human resources management can be elaborated by four policy areas. Every area consist a series of important tasks must to be performed by the managers. The four attributes that the human resources management of Mobilink Pakistan must consider are; Commitment Congruence Competence Cost effectiveness Task 2: Examine HR Planning and developments in the Organization (Chosen for the purpose of assignment) P2.1 Select at least three HR planning and developments. Human resources planning and developments refer towards the phenomenon of improving workforce attitude and behaviours to add vale to their performances. Different training and development strategies have been part and parcel of different organizations. Mobilink Pakistan developed an in-house training and development programmes to enable the workforce to perform their duties more efficiently and productively. For the purpose of this research carried out the researcher will discuss following three training and development strategies; Sensitivity training Survey feedback process consultation Inter group development SENSITIVITY TRAINING The basic purpose of sensitivity training is to show the workforce a reflection of their own behaviours that how it feels to the other people when they interact with them. It provides greater sensitivity to others behaviours and better group setting. A qualified psychological trainer is the in-charge of the training process but he never adopts a directional stand. The trainer provides the workforce an atmosphere where people could express themselves, their thoughts and feelings comfortably. The outcome of this training has been very successful and the people are better to understand and correct their behaviours. They can easily communicate matters with fellow staff and management. Workforce feels less reserved and their extent of tolerance seems to be increased. The most important impact is that they can show is an ability of self correction of their behaviours. All of these elements are contributing to give rise a more sophisticated corporate culture with in the organization. SURVEY FEEDBACK; Survey feedback is conducted from the number of employees belonging to the different departments of the organization to resolve a number behavioural and the issues employee satisfaction. Before preparing the questionnaire a change agent interviews employees of the different sections to identify the actual issues of the workforce. A questionnaire is prepared by a team of organizational psychologists. This questionnaire is used to collect information from a sample of employees representing the whole company. After detailed analysis of the data collection the summary is thoroughly considered by the top management. It is further used to help the employees to understand and solve their individual and group problems. Different meeting are arranged with the employees to promote interaction through discussion on the several issues. Concluding the impact, survey feedback brings job satisfaction by better decision making of the leadership and also highlights the issues causing injury to the employee-employer relationship. INTER GROUP DEVELOPMENT; The aim of inter group development is that different groups or departments with in the Mobilink Pakistan could better communicate and corporate with each other. It is possible only by changing perceptions of different organizational groups about each other. If they have negative views about each other it means there is poor standard of quality and interaction between them. It adversely affects the initiatives to coordinate activities at the organizational level. Mark (2005) states that inter group development has four steps. The first step is of discovery. The idea is to investigate into what workforce things the strengths and weakness of the different groups. The second step is dreaming. It is about the how the organization culture should be in the future. Third step is designing. It is about how the inter group development plan should be to develop the desired culture with in the organization. The fourth and the final step try to describe the organizations destiny. In includes actions plans and development and implementation of strategies. P 2.2: Critically evaluate their effectiveness to meet organizational objectives, The human resources planning and development needs discussed in P2.1 are to add value to the human resource of the Mobilink Pakistan in terms of rich values and attitudes. It encompasses the range of ideas and actions as they are unbreakable in the commercial setting, and so emphasize many of the explicit issues of managing people. . It provides the social arrangement for the connection between employees and their ability to recognize transform themselves according to change process. It also provides an opportunity of self actualization to the individuals and to exercise power. These training and developments increase the level of tolerance among the workforce and encourage them to take risk associated with the assigned tasks with brevity and confidence. Hence the people does not become panic from the ambiguous work situations and have courage to accept the challenging tasks. They have tendency to take productive initiatives beyond the rules. These training and development ac tivities attempts to minimize ethical ambiguity prevailing in the organization. Employees are trained to follow the ethical rules which are really effective for the organization. It provides an opportunity to the workforce to discuss ethical problems and report abusive behaviours to the appointed ethical counsellor without any reservation. Ethical counsellor of the organization can then investigate into the matter to resolve the issue. Sensitivity training encourages self awareness and self correctness in the organization. Same is the contribution made by the inter group development technique. It emphasizes the inner life of every individual working within the corporate sector and suggests ways to enrich one-selfs behaviour and attitude in way that contribute for organizational efficiency. Those who pledge themselves in this logic would like to observe organizational culture is developing and recognising the personality make-up of the people. They are also enthusiastic to seek co nnotation with others people who are a part of this corporate community. One of the major benefits of these training and developments in inter-group development is that teams and their leaders jointly attempt to resolve the troubles. This practice was the best to promote better relationships. After initial discussion separately every group come forward with their perceptions about the other groups and then consider as to weather they acknowledge. In this process the role of consultant is just restricted only to the explanation of perceptions and meanings. The groups then move back to their own rooms and analyse the findings that apply to their and the other groups. This practice provides a framework to remove differences and elements causing division among the groups. It helps to identify such issues and their urgency to be resolved. Action plans are designed to address such problems and then critical evaluation for the practical implementation of the agreed plan is made by the e xperts. Task 3: Analyze ways in which performance of HR may be enhanced in the Organization (Chosen of the purpose of assignment) P 3.1: Review how Hr performance in the identified Organization is currently indicated and monitored. It is a basic responsibility of the management and leadership to monitor and evaluate the performance of the HR. Mobilink Pakistan adopts different procedures to evaluate the performance of their employees, a few of them are disused below. CHARATER REPORTS: In this technique supervisor writes down a character report of every employee individually. It describes the employees track record in terms of his behaviour and performance. It also highlights individuals strengths and weaknesses. Christian (2008) recognises the manager or supervisor charged with this responsibility must have true sense of judgement and writing skills to perform this task. CRITICAL INCIDENTS; In this approach the HR manager indicates those events representing good and bad behaviours of the workforce and their outcomes. Mark (2005) acknowledges that this practice represents the desired behaviours possessed by the workforce. It also address the signals indicating need for improvement. GRAPHIC RATING SCALES: This technique is connected with the detailed analysis of quantitative data. All the factors indicating the standards of performance are identified. These factors are rated according to their standards for instance rating one to five, where 5 represents the highest stand and the It represents the lowest standard. This type of monitoring requires strong observation skills and it is economical way of evaluation. A dissimilarity of the realistic rating is the behaviourally affixed ranking scale. Where every ranting scale is clearly elaborated in connection with the attach behaviours. Behaviourally anchored rating scales specify job-related behaviour associated with each performance factor along a continuum. The human resources manager of the organization selects the acceptable point of performance. MULTI PERSON COMPARISON; This procedure is used to access ones attributes and characteristics against the other. It is the best exercised method for performance appraisal. Jane (1998) describes that this approach has three basics of comparison; INDIVIDUAL RANKING: It comprises comparing an individual against another individual in the same position. It is helpful to identify and evaluate the proficiencies and expertises of the employees individually. GROUP RANKING; In this type of ranking individuals are categorised into the different groups and then each groups performance is compared with that of the other group. Group performing well will be ranked higher than the other one. PAIRED COMPARISON: This type of comparison recognises that each employee must be compared with every other employee in the organization. Employees are harmonized and every individual employee is given ranking after comparison with the others. This ranking is based on the strengths and weakness of the individuals against the paired employees. Hence this methodology provides an evaluation of any individual employee with the rest of the workforce individually. However it some times becomes difficult in the organizations having high number of personals involved. P 3.2: Try to suggest ways to improve this. In the opinion of the researcher, the performance of the human resources department may be enhanced by Multi Rater Comparative Evaluation with in the organization. A very common example of this approach is assessment centre. Using multi rater, comparative evaluation approach can be adopted in an assessment centre. In the perspective of management development it is usually referred as development centre. In such a scenario just with in a few days, appraisal of attributes and abilities of the employees can be completed as the benchmarking promotional criteria. The whole process consists of interviews, test, and analysis of performance, peer and expert appraisal. Another commonly example that Mobilink Pakistan can include into its system is of 360 degree feedback survey. It is also an example of multi rater technique. In this approach multi several people give performance related feedback, it is potentially very useful. It recognises both qualitative and quantitative issues. Fee dback report published at the end of the whole process is discussed with the employees to address the highlighted areas of concern. Goffin (2007) recognises that 360 degree appraisal is widly being used all over the world these days. It also helps to develop ethical cultured organization and encourages people towards values. Recognising the feedback from the customers while monitoring the human resources performances has also becoming very famous these days. To complete this task the HR manager can; Can collect customers reviews by conducting telephonic survey or interviews. Use surveillance technique to monitor samples of service encounter. Mystry customers strategy can be used in which organizations spy acts like a difficult customer and then provide a report on the level of professionalism and services received in return.